White Gold

By Yasmin Stefanov-King

Trading in ivory has a long history, stretching back at least as far as the Roman Empire, when elephants from the north coast of Africa were hunted to extinction as a result [1]. Ivory from the west coast was transported along the trans Saharan routes to the North African coast and then traded across the Mediterranean in Europe, or over to Central and East Asian areas where the tusks were prized over those from Asian elephants. Asian elephant tusks are much smaller, and only grow on male elephants, whilst both male and female African elephants grow tusks, which can be as large as 225lbs (102kg) and 10 feet (3m) long [2].

When the Portuguese began navigating the western coastline of Africa during the 1400s they engaged with the ivory trade, but it was still the case that the ivory itself was almost exclusively  being acquired by  local hunters [1]. As demand increased, the population of elephants along the coastline dropped dramatically, resulting in more excursions inland to hunt them. By the mid 17th century elephants were extinct along the coast of West Africa [2]. This brought up a whole new issue, that of transporting the ivory back to the coastline where the traders were. Rivers were generally a good means of transferring the items, but this only really worked in west Africa, and as the populations moved further and further inland, this became an increasing problem. Tropical diseases meant that using animals was almost impossible – and so human porters were really the only means of transferring this highly prized commodity back to the coast.

As soon as you have a highly valuable item, which needs transporting safely via human beings, there is the link to enslavement. Thompsell states that in those regions, African and Arab traders would travel inland buying large numbers of both people and ivory, and then use one to carry the other back to the coast where both would be sold at huge profit. The uncomfortable truth is that until the 19th century, most of the British trade taking place along the West coast of Africa, was around the slave trade [3]. It is stated that as late as the 1870s – before Harrison set foot on the continent – only 10% was under direct European control [3], but by 1900 this had reversed completely, with European nations ‘ruling’ more than 90% of the continent. The scramble for Africa, and the justification of this in terms of scientific racism, are areas which have been covered in other articles here and here. The truth is that this carving up of the continent had less to do with the abolition of slavery, and more to do with the exploitation of the land, in terms of minerals, as discussed here, and other resources.

In 1885 King Leopold II of Belgium claimed the Congo Free State as his own privately owned region [4]. He purported to be doing so in order to bring ‘civilisation’ to the region, but in truth his reign was one of exploitation and brutal violence, with rubber and ivory being at the core. In 1891 he issued a decree giving himself total control over the ivory and rubber trade in the area. Ultimately the trade became one of violence, with ivory being seized rather than traded, and forced labour used to extract the rubber. Those who resisted were killed and horrendous punishments were given to those people who failed to meet their quotas. This was genocide on a massive scale.

Ivory did not just suddenly gain a value with the arrival of Leopold. Within the Congo region it had been recognised as a precious commodity strictly controlled by chiefs and kings for some considerable time [2]. The carving was so detailed that the items were valued on a global level, and highly decorated horns from the 16th century are known to have come from this region [2], and items for both decoration and religious purposes were being traded from the medieval period onwards. The sheer body of work from this region is testimony to the skill of the artists in catering for a diverse market, full tusks would be carved with scenes such as processions of African figures; caravans of porters; and even images depicting slavery [2].

By Harrison’s time the demand for ivory had increased dramatically in order to make not only  ornamental pieces, but also for combs, brush handles, cutlery handles, piano keys and of course billiard balls [5]. What this meant though was that Harrison was able to exploit this commodity to finance his way across the continent, and this is reflected within his diaries. He writes on January 5th 1900 how he was able to achieve permission to travel through an area:

“We found the Emperor a most delightful person and he took the most keen interest in each visitor - was delighted with our present of ivory and gave us all the leave to shoot and travel.”

This is not the first time he makes mention of ivory, and looking through his diaries it is possible to see numerous mentions of the way in which he focused on the value of the tusk, seeing this as a cause for celebration

October 1st 1896

“We estimate the 4 tusks at about 140 lbs. sent Alexander over to main camp to bring a bottle of champagne to celebrate our first ivory.”

It is also possible to see the way in which ivory was used as a means of trade, whereby he sells donkeys in order to acquire more:

Wednesday, 2nd March, 1904

“Met at lunch time at Braziba Camp a Mr. Richard Moses with whom I dealt in selling him 4 donkeys - taking about 40 lbs of ivory for one - £30 for the other three.”

Thursday, 17th March, 1904

“Found Chief Okengi and his son waiting for me - a most quaint old man; has long pigtails plaited of his beard! He is one of the biggest Chiefs of the Azandis. I did a good deal getting 195 lbs. of ivory for two donkeys still leaving me with my best one.”

Sunday, 20th March, 1904

“My last friend among the donkeys has now gone, as I have accepted 70 lbs. of ivory for him, to be given me at Boma, so I have done well with getting 270 lbs. of ivory into pocket.”

He is even prepared to take on more porters to carry the load:

Friday, 18th March, 1904

“I am getting together a numerous collection of curios - especially knives and spears. I have now to carry along about 210 lbs. of ivory. This requires seven extra porters, so loads don't diminish!”

His diary entries often focus on the weight of the ivory accrued so far:

Tuesday, 26th April 1904

“Weighed and delivered baggage – total 610 k. – 272 ivory.”

 Saturday, 30th April, 1904

“Called on the Governor General Costermans - weighed ivory out 257 kilos. Consul returned.”

Although he does make sure within all this that he has time for the important things in life:

Thursday, March 10th, 1910

  “Busy repacking and reducing loads. Sold 851 lbs. of ivory to Alladina for 4.63 = £263:7:6. Decided to take along the 4 large tusks. Went to tea and tennis at the Bonds.”

It is difficult to imagine a trade like this now, particularly in terms of the impact upon the people who were coerced into carrying the items. Harrison himself writes

Monday, January 17th, 1910

“Started off at 4.30 and found first hour a very bad road. in dark; also two boys taken on bolted with ivory and salt - lucky nothing more valuable or useful.”

It is actually surprising that this was not a more regular occurrence, given the value of the items being carried. Ivory had long earned its title of white gold after all.

References

1. Thompsell, A. (2018) The Ivory Trade in Africa

2. Bridges, N. N. (2009) Kongo Ivories, in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 Met Museum

3. Slavery and the 'scramble for Africa'

4. National Geographic

5. Britannica - The end of the colonial period

6. Bull elephant image Victoria Ibbotson